Relationship between social anxiety and coping profile in adults who stutter.

INTRODUCTION: Stuttering is a condition that can be severely disabling in the workplace and socially. Although many stuttering cases resolve, some adults who stutter (AWS) continue to be affected not only by dysfluent speech, but also by other social and psychological conditions that may develop as a result of stuttering. The aim of the present study was to determine the relationship between severity of stuttering, severity of social anxiety, and coping profile. METHODS: We objectively assessed adults who stutter (n = 44; mean age = 27.5 years) and age-matched non-stuttering control subjects on four variables: stuttering frequency, communication attitude, social anxiety, and coping profile. Stuttering frequency was calculated as the percentage stuttered morae in the Kitsuon-kensa-ho test. All subjects were assessed on the Japanese versions of the Modified Erickson's Communication Attitude Scale (S-24-J), Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS-J), and the Brief Scale for Coping Profile (BSCP). RESULTS: Compared to the non-stuttering group, the stuttering group had a higher average score on the S-24-J and LSAS-J, and tended to "avoid and suppress" instead of "seek help for resolution" on the BSCP. Comparison of individual stutterers' S-24-J scores whose LSAS-J scores were above or below the LSAS-J cutoff score revealed that their the S-24-J scores tended to be higher. Also, BSCP participants tended to engage in "proactive resolution" and "emotional venting involving others," not "seeking help for resolution." The stuttering group (vs. the non-stuttering group) and the high social-anxiety group (vs. the low social-anxiety group) adopted non-adaptive coping strategies. CONCLUSIONS: This suggests that the coping profile of AWS may contribute to the cycle of social anxiety and stuttering to a greater or lesser extent. Thus, therapy that reduces anxiety and helps AWS to adopt more adaptive coping strategies may improve stuttering.

Online cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation to the right homologue of Broca's area improves speech fluency in people who stutter.

AIM: Previous functional imaging studies demonstrate that people who stutter (PWS) exhibit over- and under-activation of Broca's and Wernicke's areas and their right hemisphere homologues when speaking. However, it is unclear whether this altered activation represents the neural cause of speech dysfluency or a secondary compensatory activation in PWS. To clarify the functional significance of the altered activation pattern in classic language areas and their right homologues, we examined whether the severity of stuttering was affected when the activation of these areas was modulated by brain stimulation. METHODS: While PWS read passages aloud, we applied transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) using electrode montages that included an anodal or cathodal electrode placed over one of the language areas and its right hemisphere homologue, with the second electrode placed over the contralateral supraorbital region. Each participant underwent both anodal and cathodal tDCS sessions, each of which included a sham stimulation. Effects of stimulation polarity and electrode location on the frequency of stuttering were analyzed. RESULTS: We observed a significant interaction between polarity and location on the frequency of stuttering. Follow-up analyses revealed that a tDCS montage including the cathodal electrode over right Broca's area (RB) significantly reduced the frequency of stuttering. CONCLUSION: The results indicated that stuttering severity was ameliorated when overactivation in RB was reduced by tDCS. This observation further suggests that speech dysfluency in PWS may be caused either by functional alteration in RB or by abnormal activation in speech motor control areas that are connected with RB.

Public awareness and knowledge of stuttering in Japan.

PURPOSE: To determine laypeople's knowledge and awareness of stuttering in Japan. METHODS: A total of 303 respondents, recruited by street sampling, completed a questionnaire assessing the prevalence, onset, gender distribution, occurrence in different races, cause, treatment, association with intelligence, and hereditariness of stuttering. The questionnaire used was a Japanese version of that devised by Van Borsel, Verniers, and Bouvry (1999) for use in Belgium. RESULTS: Although around half of the respondents had heard or met a stutterer, they tended to misunderstand the stuttering; e.g., respondents estimated the prevalence of stuttering as high. Knowledge also differed according to age, gender, and education level. Specifically, older individuals, females, and individuals with higher levels of education tended to have greater knowledge of stuttering. In comparing the results of the present study with similar studies conducted in Belgium, China, and Brazil, we observed several similarities and differences. DISCUSSION: Although most respondents were to some extent familiar with stuttering, their overall knowledge of the condition was limited. Certain factors could be involved in having knowledge of stuttering, such as one's life experience, cultural background, and social attitudes toward stuttering. The findings suggest the need for growing knowledge and awareness of stuttering.